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Caladium

Caladium

See text Caladium is a genus of plants of the family Araceae. They are often known by the common name elephant ear, which they share with the closely related genera Alocasia, Colocasia, and Xanthosoma. The genus Caladium includes seven species, which are indigenous to Brazil and to neighboring areas of South America and Central America. They grow in open areas of the forest and on the banks of creeks and go dormant during the dry season. The wild plants grow to 40-90 cm tall, with leaves mostly 15-45 cm long and broad. ;Selected species
- Caladium bicolor (syn. C. marmoratum, C. picturatum, C. hortulanum)
- Caladium humboldtii
- Caladium lindenii
- Caladium schomburgkii

Cultivation and uses

Several species are grown as ornamental plants for their large, arrowhead-shaped leaves marked in varying patterns in white, pink, and red and have been in cultivation in Europe since the late 1700s. The two forms most widely cultivated are called "fancy-leaved" and "lance-leaved". The former is the more commonly seen and is the traditional caladium of cultivation; the leaves are more heart-shaped. The latter has more lance-head-shaped leaves. Most Caladiums in cultivation grow to about 60 cm high and 60 cm wide, although dwarf varieties are now in cultivation. Numerous cultivars have been selected, most of them (over 120) derived from C. bicolor. The lance-leaved varieties are also derived from C. schomburgkii. Caladiums grow from corms and can be propagated by dividing the tubers. They are hardy only to USDA plant hardiness zone 10; in colder areas, they are typically grown as tender bulbs or as houseplants. During their growing season, they need a great deal of water and should not be allowed to dry out. Most varieties prefer partial to full shade, although sun-resistant varieties are now in cultivation. In temperate areas, they should be lifted before the first frost. The corms are dried and stored for the winter when temperatures fall to 18º C, and stored moderately dry (not bone-dry) over the winter at temperatures between 13 °C and 16 °C. All parts of the plant are poisonous. They should not be ingested and may irritate sensitive skin.

External links

- [http://facultystaff.vwc.edu/~presslar/greenhouse/caladium/xhortulanum/ufces-1060.pdf Brochure on cultivation from the University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service] (PDF file) Category:Araceae Category:Garden plants

Araceae

See text The arums comprise the Family Araceae (including the numerous aroids subfamily): monocotyledonous flowering plants in which flowers are borne on a type of inflorescence called a spadix. The spadix is usually accompanied by, and sometimes partially enclosed in, a spathe or leaf-like hood. This family of 107 genera and over 3700 species is most diverse in the New World tropics, although also distributed in the Old World tropics and north temperate regions. Recent genetic research by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group has shown that the duckweeds, previously treated in a separate family Lemnaceae, also belong in the Araceae. Lemnaceae In monoecious aroids (possessing separate male and female flowers, but with both flowers present on one plant), the spadix is usually organized with female flowers towards the bottom and male flowers towards the top. In aroids with perfect flowers the stigma is no longer receptive when the pollen is released, thus preventing self-fertilization. There are also some dioecious species. Anthurium and Zantedeschia are two well-known members of this family, as are Colocasia esculenta (taro) and Xanthosoma roseum (Elephant ear or ‘ape). Among the largest inflorescence in the world is that of the arum, Amorphophallus titanum (Titan arum). This family includes a great many ornamental plants: Dieffenbachia, Aglaonema, Caladium, Nephthys, and Epipremnum, to name a few. In the genus Cryptocoryne are many popular aquarium plants. Both Taro and Monstera deliciosa provide food value (the fruit of Monstera deliciosa called "Mexican breadfruit"). Philodendron is an important plant in the ecosystems of the rainforests and is often used in home and interior decorating. Symplocarpus foetidus (skunk cabbage) is a common North American species. The largest collection of living Araceae is maintained at Missouri Botanical Gardens.

Genera

Category:Plant families Category:Alismatales
- ja:サトイモ科

Alocasia

See text Alocasia is a genus of broad-leaved rhizomatous or bulbous perennials from the Family Araceae. There are about 70 species of Alocasia occurring in tropical, humid climates of Southeast Asia and Brazil. The large cordate or sagittate leaves grow to a length of 20 to 90 cm on long petioles. Their beautiful araceous flowers grow at the end of short stalk, but are not conspicuous, often hidden behind the leaf petioles. The stem (a corm) is edible, but contains raphid crystals of oxalic acid that can numb and swell the tongue and pharynx. The corms require prolonged boiling before serving or processing as a food. Some hybrids, such as the Amazon Lily of the African Mask (Alocasia x amazonica), are grown as ornamentals.

Species

- Alocasia acuminata: (Indonesia)
- Alocasia aequiloba: (New Guinea)
- Alocasia alba: (Sri Lanka)
- Alocasia argyrea:
- Alocasia arifolia: (Malaysia)
- Alocasia atropurpurea: (Philippines)
- Alocasia augustiana:
- Alocasia × bachi (unplaced name)
- Alocasia balgooyi: (Sulawesi)
- Alocasia beccarii: (Malaysia)
- Alocasia boa: (New Guinea)
- Alocasia boyceana: (Philippines)
- Alocasia brancifolia : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia brisbanensis: (Australia)
- Alocasia cadieri: (SE Asia)
- Alocasia celebica: (Sulawesi)
- Alocasia × chantrieri: (unplaced name)
- Alocasia × chantrieriana: (unplaced name)
- Alocasia clypeolata: Green Shield (Philippines)
- Alocasia × conspicua (= A. longiloba × A.odora ) (unplaced name)
- Alocasia coriacea: (unplaced name)
- Alocasia cucullata: Chinese Taro (Indonesia)
- Alocasia culionensis: (Philippines)
- Alocasia cuprea: (Borneo)
- Alocasia decipiens : (Indonesia)
- Alocasia decumbens : (Vietnam)
- Alocasia denudata: (Singapore)
- Alocasia devansayana : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia evrardii : (SE Asia) (unplaced name)
- Alocasia fallax : (East Himalaya to Bangladesh)
- Alocasia flabellifera : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia flemingiana : (Java)
- Alocasia fornicata : (Indonesia)
- Alocasia gageana : (Myanmar) raphid
- Alocasia × gaulainii : (unplaced name)
- Alocasia grandis : (Indonesia) (unplaced name)
- Alocasia grata : (Indonesia)
- Alocasia hainanensis : (Hainan, China)
- Alocasia hainaica : (Hainan to N. Vietnam)
- Alocasia heterophylla : (Philippines)
- Alocasia hollrungii : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia infernalis : (Borneo)
- Alocasia inornata: (Sumatra)
- Alocasia kerinciensis : (Sumatra)
- Alocasia lancifolia : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia lauterbachiana : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia longiloba: (Malaysia)
- Alocasia macrorrhizos : Giant Taro, Elephant Ear, Ape flower (SE Asia, Australia, Pacific)
- Alocasia macrorrhizos var. brisbanensis : (Australia)
- Alocasia maquilingensis : (Philippines)
- Alocasia melo : (Borneo)
- Alocasia micholitziana: Elephant’s Ear Plant (Philippines)
- Alocasia minuscula : (Borneo)
- Alocasia monticola : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia × mortfontanensis : (unplaced name)
- Alocasia navicularis : (Himalaya)
- Alocasia nebula : (Borneo)
- Alocasia nicolsonii : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia odora: Night-scented Lily (SE Asia, China)
- Alocasia pangeran : (Borneo)
- Alocasia peltata : (Borneo)
- Alocasia perakensis : (Malaysia)
- Alocasia portei : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia princeps : (Malaysia)
- Alocasia principiculus : (Borneo)
- Alocasia puber : (Java)
- Alocasia puteri : (Borneo)
- Alocasia putii : (Thailand) (unplaced name)
- Alocasia pyrospatha : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia ramosii : (Philippines)
- Alocasia rapiformis : (Myanmar) (unplaced name)
- Alocasia regina : (Borneo)
- Alocasia reginula: Black Velvet (cultivated)
- Alocasia reversa : (Philippines)
- Alocasia ridleyi : (Borneo)
- Alocasia robusta : (Borneo)
- Alocasia × rodigasiana : (unplaced name)
- Alocasia sanderiana: (Malaysia)
- Alocasia sarawakensis : (Borneo)
- Alocasia scabriuscula : (Borneo)
- Alocasia scalprum : (Philippines)
- Alocasia × sedeni : (unplaced name)
- Alocasia simonsiana : (New Guinea)
- Alocasia sinuata : (Malaysia)
- Alocasia suhirmaniana : (Sulawesi)
- Alocasia x van-houtteana : (unplaced name)
- Alocasia venusta : (Borneo)
- Alocasia wentii: New Guinea Shield (New Guinea)
- Alocasia wongii : (Borneo)
- Alocasia zebrina: (Philippines) All hybrids have been obtained artificially. Category:Araceae

Colocasia

See text Colocasia is a flowering plant genus of about eight species, native to Polynesia and Southeast Asia (Wagner, Herbst, and Sohmer, 1999). Colocasia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Palpifer murinus and Palpifer sexnotatus.

Species

- C. affinis jenningsii
- C. bicolor
- C. coryli
- C. esculenta (syn. Colocasia antiquorum) - taro
- C. gigantea - giant taro
- C. lihengiae
- C. macrorrhiza
- C. menglaensis

References

- Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Revised edition. Vol. 2. Univ. of Hawai‘i Press/Bishop Museum Press. p. 1357. Category:Araceae

Xanthosoma

About 50; see text Xanthosoma is a genus of about 50 species of tropical and sub-tropical arums in the flowering plant family, Araceae, all native to tropical America. Several species are grown for their starchy corms, an important food staple of tropical regions, known variously as malanga, new cocoyam, tannia, tannier, yautia, macabo, and ‘ape. Many other species (including especially X. roseum) are utilized as ornamental plants, and in popular horticultural literature are known as ‘ape or elephant ear (from the purported resemblance of the leaf to an elephant's ear), although the latter name is sometimes also applied to members with similar appearance and uses in the closely related genera of Caladium, Colocasia (i.e., taro), and Alocasia. The leaves of most Xanthosoma species are 40-200 cm long, saggitate (arrowhead-shaped) or subdivided into 3 or as many as 18 segments. Unlike the leaves of Colocasia, those of Xanthosoma are usually not peltate—the upper v-notch extends in to the point of attachment of the leaf petiole to the blade.

Crop uses

leaves Domestication of Xanthosoma species (especially X. saggitifolium but also X. atrovirens, X. violaceum, X. maffaffa, and others) is thought to have originated in northern lowland South America then spread to the Antilles and Mesoamerica. Today Xanthosoma is still grown in all those regions but is especially popular in Cuba and Puerto Rico. It is also grown in West Africa, now a major producer, where it can be used as a replacement for yams in a popular regional dish called fufu. Xanthosoma is also grown as a crop in the Philippines. Traditionally Xanthosoma has been a subsistence crop with excess sold at local markets, but in the United States, large numbers of Latin American immigrants have created a market for commercial production. In general, production has yet to meet demand in some areas. In Polynesia, Xanthosoma (‘ape) was considered a famine food, utilized only in the event of failure of the much preferred taro (kalo) crop. The typical Xanthosoma plant has a growing cycle of 9 to 11 months, during which time it produces a large stem called a corm, this surrounded by smaller edible cormels about the size of potatoes. These cormels (like the corm) are rich in starch. Their taste has been described as earthy and nutty and they are a common ingredient in soups and stews. They may also be eaten grilled, fried, or puréed. The young, unfurled leaves of some varieties can be eaten as boiled leafy vegetables or used in soups and stews, such as the Caribbean callaloo. Xanthosoma starch is highly hypoallergenic due to the small size of the starch grains. hypoallergenic

External links

- [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/Xanthosoma_nex.html Xanthosoma spp. at Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plants Products]
- [http://www.kallus.com/aroids/ediblescientific.htm Distribution and names of edible aroids] Category:Araceae Category:Root vegetables Category:Leaf vegetables

Brazil

The Federative Republic of Brazil (República Federativa do Brasil in Brazilian Portuguese) is the largest and most populous country in Latin America, and fifth largest in the world. Spanning a vast area between central South America and the Atlantic Ocean, it is the easternmost country of the Americas and it borders Uruguay, Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French department of French Guiana — every South American nation except for Ecuador and Chile. Named after brazilwood, a tree highly valued by early colonists, Brazil is home to both extensive agricultural lands and rain forests. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, it is today South America's leading economic power and a regional leader. As a former colony of Portugal, Portuguese is its official language.

History

Main article: History of Brazil Brazil is thought to have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years by semi-nomadic populations when the first Portuguese explorers, led by Pedro Álvares Cabral, disembarked in 1500. Over the next three centuries, it was resettled by the Portuguese and exploited mainly for brazilwood (Pau-Brasil) at first, and later for sugarcane(Cana-de-Açúcar) agriculture and gold mining. Work in the colony was based on slavery. In 1808, Queen Maria I of Portugal and her son and regent, the future João VI of Portugal, fleeing from Napoleon, relocated to Brazil with the royal family, nobles and government. Though they returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to the opening of commercial ports to the United Kingdom — at the time isolated from most European ports by Napoleon — and to the elevation of Brazil to the status of a Kingdom united to Portugal's Crown. Then prince regent Dom Pedro I of Brazil and IV of Portugal declared independence on 7 September 1822, establishing the independent Empire of Brazil. As the crown remained in the hands of the house of Bragança, this was more the severance of the Portuguese empire in two, than an independence movement as seen elsewhere in the Americas. The Brazilian Empire was theoretically a democracy in the British style, although in practice, the emperor-premier-parliament balance of power more closely resembled the autocratic Austrian Empire. Slavery was abolished in 1888, and intensive European immigration created the basis for industrialization. Pedro I was succeeded by his son, Pedro II — who in old age was caught by a political dispute between the Army and the Cabinet, a crisis arising from the Paraguay War. In order to avoid a civil war between Army and Navy, Pedro II renounced the throne on 15 November 1889, when a federal republic was established by Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil attracted over 5 million European and Japanese immigrants. That period also saw Brazil industrialise, further colonize, and develop its interior. Brazilian democracy was replaced by dictatorships three times — 1930–1934 and 1937–1945 under Getúlio Vargas, and 1964–1985, under a succession of generals appointed by the military. Today, Brazil is internationally considered a democracy since 1985, specifically a presidential democracy, which was kept after a plebiscite in 1993 where voters had to choose between a presidential or parliamentary systems, whilst also choosing if Brazil should reinstate its constitutional monarchy.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Brazil Politics of Brazil] The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government. The President has extensive executive powers: he appoints the Cabinet, and he is also both head of state and head of government. The President and Vice-President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms. The Brazilian legislature, the bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional, includes the Federal Senate or Senado Federal of 81 seats, of which three members from each state or federal district are elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four-year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period. Beside the Senate there is the Chamber of Deputies or Câmara dos Deputados of 513 seats, whose members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms. See also:
- Cangaço (criminal hinterland bands in the first years of the 20th century)
- Café com leite (reference to Brazil's domination by the "coffee oligarchs" in the first years of the 20th century)
- Coronelismo (reference to machine politics in the first years of the 20th century, still present on a lesser scale in modern times)
- Integralismo (influential Brazilian fascist movement in the 1930s)

States

Main article: States of Brazil Brazil consists of 26 states (estados, singular estado) and 1 federal district (distrito federal): Brazil and its 26 states and Federal District are divided by IBGE into 5 distinctive regions: North, Northeast, Center-West, Southeast and South (Division by Regions). See also:
- List of cities in Brazil (all cities and municipalities)
- List of major cities in Brazil (metropolitan areas and major regional cities)

Geography

List of major cities in Brazil Main article: Geography of Brazil Brazil is characterized by the extensive low-lying Amazon Rainforest in the north, and a more open terrain of hills and low mountains to the south — home to most of Brazil's population and its agricultural base. Along the Atlantic seacoast are also found several mountain ranges, reaching roughly 2,900 m high. The highest peak is the Pico da Neblina at 3,014 m, in Guiana's highlands. Major rivers include the Amazon, the largest river in the world by volume, and often considered the world's longest; the Paraná and its major tributary, the Iguaçu River, where the impressive Iguaçu falls are located; the Rio Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and the Tapajós rivers. Situated on the equator, Brazil's climate is predominantly tropical, with little seasonal variation, although the subtropical south is more temperate, and occasionally experiences frost and snow. Precipitation is abundant in the humid Amazon Basin, but more arid landscapes are found as well, particularly in the northeast. A number of islands in the Atlantic Ocean are part of Brazil:
- Saint Peter and Paul Rocks
- Rocas Atoll
- Fernando de Noronha
- Trindade and Martim Vaz See also:
- Protected areas of Brazil
- National parks (Brazil)
- List of Brazilian National Forests
- List of mountains in Brazil

Economy

Main article: Economy of Brazil Economy of Brazil in the world [http://www.citymayors.com/features/largest_cities1.html 1] ]] Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, as well as a large labor pool, Brazil's GDP (PPP) outweighs that of any other Latin American country, and the country is expanding its presence in world markets. Major export products include airplanes, coffee, vehicles, soybean, iron ore, orange juice, steel, textiles, footwear and electrical equipment. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program, and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a US$41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. [http://www.canadianliberty.bc.ca/relatedinfo/BRAZIL'S_IMF_DISASTER.html] During the summer of 1998, investors expressed concerns that a downturn in economic growth was imminent. However, in January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the Real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn, and the country posted moderate GDP growth. Economic growth slowed considerably in 2001 — to less than 2% — because of a slowdown in major markets, the hiking of interest rates by the Central Bank to reduce inflationary pressures, and fears over the economic policies of the new government to be elected. Investor confidence was strong at the end of 2001, in part because of the strong recovery in the balance of trade. Chronic poverty remains a pressing problem. After Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's inauguration on 1 January 2003, there was some fear that his party radicals might provoke an economic about-face, and that Brazil might experience a financial crisis. However, the Brazilian economy seems to have detached itself from politics, and after a GDP increase of 0.5% in 2003, Brazil has enjoyed a robust growth in 2004. It is estimated that there will be moderate growth in 2005 and 2006.

Brazil Socioeconomic Rankings
Indicator	World Rank	Value	Comparable countries
Total Nominal GDP	14th	604,855 million USD	Australia, Russia
Total PPP GDP	9th	1,461,564 million Int.Dollars	Italy, Russia
Per capita Nominal GDP	74th	3,325 USD	Romania, Dominica
Per capita PPP GDP	70th	8,049 Int.Dollars	Bulgaria, Thailand
Gini Coefficient	111th	59,3	Paraguay, Guatemala
Human Development Index	63th	0.792	Russia, Romania

But... FIFA soccer ranking for Brazil is number one (with 848 points for January 2005), above France, Spain, Netherlands, Argentina.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Brazil.
See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil. Indigenous peoples in Brazil, Southern Brazil]] The main ethnic group in Brazil are the Portuguese, who colonized the country after 1500. Until independence in 1822, the Portuguese were the only European nation that successfully settled in Brazil, and most of Brazil's culture is based on that of Portugal. The Dutch and the French also colonized Brazil during the 17th century, but their presence lasted only a few decades. The Amerindian population of Brazil has in large part been exterminated or assimilated into the Portuguese population. Since the beginning of Brazil's colonization, intermarriage between the Portuguese and Native Brazilians has been common. Brazil has a large black population, descended from African slaves brought to the country from the 16th century until the 19th century. The African population in Brazil has mixed substantially with the Portuguese, causing a large mixed-race population. Beginning in the 19th century, the Brazilian government stimulated European immigration to substitute for the manpower of the former slaves. The first non-Portuguese immigrants to settle in Brazil were Germans, in 1824. However, significant European immigration to Brazil began only in the 1870s, when immigration from Italy increased. Brazil has the largest Italian population outside of Italy, with 25 million Italians and Italian-descended Brazilians, constituting 15% of Brazil's population. Another important influx of immigrants came from Spain. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil received immigrants from several other European countries, such as Poland, Russia, Ukraine and Austria. Starting in the early 20th century, Brazil also received a large number of Asians: Korean, Chinese, Taiwanese, and Japanese immigrants. The Japanese are the largest Asian minority in Brazil, and Japanese-Brazilians are the largest Japanese population outside of Japan (1.5 million). Significant immigration from the Middle-East (Lebanon and Syria) has also occurred. Brazil's population is mostly concentrated along the coast, with a lower population density in the interior. The population of the southern states is mainly of European descent, while the majority of the inhabitants of the north and northeast are of mixed ancestry (Amerindians, Africans and Europeans).

Ethnicity and race

Syria] According to the 2000 IBGE census:
- white 53.7%
- mixed race 38.5%
- black 6.2%
- other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 0.9%
- unspecified 0.7% Most white Brazilians are of Portuguese or Italian descent. There are also significant populations of German, Spanish, and Polish descent, and other European ethnic groups. Brazilians of Portuguese ancestry are found in the entire country, while those of Italian descent are predominantly in Southern and Southeastern Brazil. The other white ethnic groups, such as German and Polish, are mostly concentrated in the extreme South of Brazil. There are entire cities settled by Germans-Brazilians in Southern Brazil. Brazilians of mixed-race ancestry are found in the whole country, although most of them live in the Northern and Northeastern states. Mixed-race Brazilians include mulatto, caboclo (or mameluco) and cafuzo, however the majority are a mix of Amerindians, whites and blacks. Black Brazilians are concentrated mostly in the Northeastern states, although large black populations can be found throughout the country. Asian Brazilians (mainly of Japanese descent) and Arab Brazilians are concentrated in the Southeastern states (mainly in São Paulo). Amerindian Brazilians are concentrated in the Northern states, mostly in the Amazon area. Despite their diversity, most Brazilians consider themselves to be part of a single "Brazilian ethnic group", and all people born in Brazil, no matter their origin, are considerated totally Brazilians. The only exceptions are non-assimilated indigenous tribes. Racism in Brazil is an unbailable crime.

Languages

indigenous tribes] Portuguese is the official language, and is spoken by the entire population. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, giving it a national culture distinct from its Spanish-speaking neighbors. Portuguese is the only language with fully official status in Brazil, and there are few regional variances. It is virtually the only language used in schools, newspapers, radio and TV, and for all business and administrative purposes. The language spoken in Brazil is slightly different from that spoken in Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries. Brazilian Portuguese is more archaic than European Portuguese, and has some phonological and orthographic differences, although mutual comprehension is not affected. Spanish is understood in various degrees by most people, since it is very close to Portuguese. English is part of the official high school curriculum, but very few people achieve any usable degree of fluency. Many minority languages are spoken daily throughout the vast national territory of Brazil. Half of these languages are spoken by indigenous peoples, mostly in Northern Brazil. The main indigenous languages are: Guaraní, Kaingang, Nadëb, Carajá, Caribe, Tucano, Arára, Terêna, Borôro, Apalaí, Canela and many others. Still others are spoken by communities of descendants of 19th century immigrants, who are for the most part bilingual, in rural areas of Southern Brazil. These communities speak dialects of Italian, German, Polish or Japanese languages. The most dominant spoken Brazilian German dialect is Riograndenser Hunsrückisch, a Brazilian variation of the Hunsrückisch dialect of German. Talian is the main spoken Italian dialect in Brazil, and is based on the Venetian Language, which has its origin in Northern Italy. Italy]]

Religion

About 3 in 4 people, or 74% of the population in Brazil, are Roman Catholic. The Protestant population has been growing very fast, and is at 15.4%. Other Christian groups make up only 1.3%. African tribal religions are the next largest groups. The Jewish community numbers around 160,000, while Buddhism, Shinto, and other Asian religions are also sizeable. Adherents of Islam number around 28,000, or 0.01%. Brazil is the country with the largest Catholic population in the world, as well the country with the largest number of members of Asian religions in the Western world.

Poverty, illiteracy and income concentration

Western world]] Brazil currently has 25 million people living in conditions of poverty [http://www.pt.org.br/assessor/pobres.htm] [http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/03122002relatorio_onu.shtm]. This is a chronic problem without easy solutions. Two phenomena very relevant to the discussion of poverty and income concentration in Brazil are directly related to each other: the mechanization of agricultural techniques and the focus of Brazilian agribusiness on exports. Poverty in Brazil can be seen in the large metropolitan areas (capitals) and in the "pockets of poverty" (upcountry regions with low rates of economic and social development). The Northeast has chronic problems as a result of its dry climate, with millions of people suffering hunger during the dry seasons. President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva has proposed a programme (Fome Zero) to mitigate this problem but its success is disputed. About 8% of the Brazilian population is technically considered illiterate (analfabetos in Portuguese), although a growing percentage show some writing and computing abilities.[http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/datas/alfabetizacao/alfabetizacao.html]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Brazil
- Brazil Religions
- Brazil Skyscrapers
- Cuisine of Brazil
- List of Brazilians
- Literature of Brazil
- Music of Brazil

Sports

Main Article: Sports in Brazil
- Brazil national football team
- Brazilian Football League Teams Some fight sports with Brazilian origins have become popular around the world:
- Capoeira
- Vale tudo
- Brazilian jiu-jitsu

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Brazil
- Foreign relations of Brazil
- Military of Brazil
- Public holidays in Brazil
- Transportation in Brazil Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.

External links

- ; Government, administration, economy & politics
- [http://www.bcb.gov.br Banco Central do Brasil] - Central Bank of Brazil (in Portuguese/English)
- [http://www.brasil.gov.br Brasil.gov.br] - Official governmental portal (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.camara.gov.br Câmara dos Deputados] - Official Chamber of Deputies site (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.oecd.org/document/60/0,2340,en_2649_34571_34413308_1_1_1_1,00.html Economic Survey of Brazil 2005]
- [http://www.fomezero.gov.br Fome Zero] - Official site of Fome Zero (zero hunger) programme (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.mma.gov.br Ministério do Meio Ambiente] - Ministry of the Environment of Brazil (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.planalto.gov.br Presidência da República] - Official presidential site (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.senado.gov.br Senado Federal] - Official senatorial site (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.stf.gov.br Supremo Tribunal Federal] - Supreme Federal Court (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.stj.gov.br Superior Tribunal de Justiça] - Superior Court of Justice (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.mre.gov.br Ministério das Relações Exteriores] - Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Português/English/Español)
- [http://www.consul.cc/brazil Consular Corps of Brazil] - Official Website of CC Brazil (English) ; Information, statistics
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/brtoc.html Library of Congress: A Country Study: Brazil]
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Brazil Open Directory Project - Brazil] directory category
- [http://www.brazilink.org Brazilink] - Selected and updated sources by experts (in English)
- [http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/default.php IBGE] - Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics (English, Español, Português)
- [http://www.mapafacil.com.br Mapa Fácil] - Online maps of more than 5000 Brazilian cities (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.bn.br/ National Library] (in Portuguese and English)
- [http://www.spcvb.com.br São Paulo Convention & Visitors Bureau] (in Portuguese and English) ; news media
- [http://www.brasilpost.com.br Brasil-Post] (in German)
- [http://jbonline.terra.com.br Jornal do Brasil] - Brazilian newspaper (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.oglobo.com.br O Globo]- Online version of a famous Brazilian newspaper (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.estadao.com.br O Estado de São Paulo]- Site of one the most important brazilian newspapers (in portuguese)
- [http://www.folhaonline.com.br Folha de São Paulo]- Another important Brazilian newspaper (in portuguese) ; Brazilian television
- [http://www.redeglobo.com Globo]- The first network in Brazil
- [http://www.sbt.com.br SBT]- The second network in Brazil
- [http://www.rederecord.com.br Record]- Important brazilian channel
- [http://www.band.com.br Band]- Important brazilian channel ; Society, social movements, etc.
- [http://www.mst.org.br Movimento dos trabalhadores rurais sem terra]
- [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/brazil9845.htm Human Rights Watch]
- [http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-bra/index Amnesty International]
- [http://www.oeco.com.br O Eco] - Journalistic website on the environmental issues of Brazil (in Portuguese) ; Art, cooking, culture, history, travel
- [http://www.roadjunky.com/brazil/guide_brazil.shtml Alternative Brazil Travel info] (in English)
- [http://www.destination360.com/south-america/brazil/brazil.php Brazil Travel Guide] (in English)
- [http://www.ceara.com.br Ceará and Fortaleza tourism information] (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.donabrasil.com Dona Brasil] on cooking, culture and travel (in English and Dutch)
- [http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch Portuguese Colonial History] Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
- [http://www.easyportuguese.com EasyPortuguese]-- Learn the Portuguese spoken in Brazil.
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Brazil Ethnologue Languages of the World] - Languages of Brazil
- [http://www.maria-brazil.org Maria-Brazil] - The first Brazilian pop-culture web site produced in the USA. Note: The section Maria's Cookbook is widely praised (site in English)
- [http://www.pernambuco.com.br Recife and Porto de Galinhas tourism information] (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.travel-impressions.de/brazil/mix/baiana.htm Photos of People and Sights]
- [http://www.rioforpartiers.com/ Rio For Partiers] - Award winning travel guide to Rio de Janeiro and [http://www.salvadorforpartiers.com/ Salvador]
- [http://www.sonia-portuguese.com sonia-portuguese] Learning Portuguese
- [http://www.thebraziliansound.com The Brazilian Sound] Brazilian music & culture (in English)
- [http://www.thowra.com/brasil.html Travelling in Brazil] (in English)
- [http://www.portoseguro.tur.br Porto Seguro Bahia tourism information] (in Portuguese)
- [http://www.v-brazil.com Virtual Brazil] - Information about Brazilian culture, economy and tourism (in English)
- [http://www.zmaxmiez-jpn.net/untitled4.html Viva Brasil!] All about Brazilian Culture
- [http://www.brazilbrazil.com/braznam.html Hy-Brazil] Origins of the name Brazil Category:Former Portuguese colonies Category:South American countries Category:CPLP member states zh-min-nan:Pa-se ko:브라질 ms:Brazil ja:ブラジル simple:Brazil th:ประเทศบราซิล fiu-vro:Brasiilia

South America

South America is a continent, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. South America is situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. Commonly referred to as part of America, like North America, South America is named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered New World. South America has an area of 17,821,601 km² (6,880,959 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface. As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,200,000. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).Europe __TOC__

Geography

The classification of its geographic location is subject to dispute, as in some non-English speaking regions of the world, the Americas are a continent and North, Central and South America are its subcontinents. In English-speaking and certain other regions of the world, North and South America are considered to be continents and their union is referred to as the supercontinent of the Americas. The classification given to South America, as a subcontinent in a continent or a continent in a supercontinent, depends entirely on regional preferences. It became attached to North America only recently (geologically speaking) with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million years ago, which resulted in the Great American Interchange. The Andes, likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range, run down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the Andes is largely tropical rain forest, the vast Amazon River basin. The continent also contains drier regions such as Patagonia and the extremely arid Atacama desert. The region of South America also includes various islands, most of which belong to countries on the continent. The Caribbean territories are grouped with North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Sea – including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana – are also known as Caribbean South America. Major natural resources are copper, iron ore, tin and oil. The many resources in South America have become useful around the world, but they have failed to diversify their economies. This has lead to major highs and lows in their economy causing instability. South America is home to many interesting species of animals including parrots, tarantulas, snakes, and mammals. The largest country in South America by far, in both area and population, is Brazil followed by Argentina. Regions in South America include the Andean States, the Guianas, the Southern Cone, and Eastern South America.

History

South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering strait, though there are also suggestions of migration from the southern Pacific Ocean.

Chavín

The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.

Inca

Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization.

European colonization

Before arrival of Europeans, an estimated 30 million people lived in South America. brain surgery In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now known to comprehend most of the South American soil), would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles and typhus) to which the native populations had no resistance, and cruel systems of forced labor, such as the infamous haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the American population under Spanish control. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects to Christianity, and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as American groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion, and the Catholic Church's evangelization in , and actually contributed to the expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems. Eventually the Natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a Mestizo class. These and the original Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included the many gold and silver sculptures found in the Americas, which were melted down before transport to Europe. Mestizo

Independence

The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the South American Wars of Independence. Simon Bolivar and José de San Martín led their independence struggle. In Brazil, a Portuguese colony, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the War of the Triple Alliance and the War of the Pacific. A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
- Trinidad and Tobago, from the United Kingdom, in 1962
- Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
- Suriname, from the Dutch control, in 1975 French Guiana remains part of France as of 2005, and hosts the European Union's principal spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.

Recent history

The continent, like many others, became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. The government of Chile was overthrown in the early 1970s, as a late (and peculiar) development of the U.S. Monroe Doctrine. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from internal conflicts (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Other revolutions and military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is the norm now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.

Economy

As of 2002, South America's gross domestic product declined by 0.3 percent, and its unemployment rate was 10.8 percent. Due to histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates and thus investment remain high and low, respectively. Interest rates are usually double that of the United States. For example, interest rates are about 22 percent in Venezuela and 23 percent in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which had a head start from 1973 under Augusto Pinochet. The South American Community of Nations is a planned continent-wide free trade zone to unite two existing free-trade organizations—Mercosur and the Andean Community. In South America, the gap between the rich and the poor is tremendous. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Brazil, and many other South American countries, the richest 20 percent may own over 60 percent of the nation's wealth, while the poorest 20 percent may own less than 5 percent. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie next to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.

Culture

Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. French Guiana also has a large number of Protestants. Guyana and Suriname are exceptions, with three major religions: Christianity in general, Hinduism, and Islam. Portuguese and Spanish are the primary languages of the continent. The majority of South Americans (51%) speak Portuguese. However, most South American countries are Spanish-speaking, and nearly all of the continent's lusophones reside in Brazil. Among other languages used by many South Americans are:
- Aymará in Bolivia and Peru.
- Quechua in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru.
- Guaraní in Paraguay.
- English in Guyana.
- Hindi in Guyana and Suriname.
- Dutch and Indonesian in Suriname.
- Italian and German in certain pockets across southern South America. South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include samba from Brazil and cumbia from Colombia. Because of South America's ethnic mix, South American cuisine takes on African, American Indian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially well-known for its West African-influenced cuisine.

People

Ethnic groups of South America include:
- Awá
- Banawa
- Caiapos
- Enxet
- European descendants, especially from Spain, Portugal and Italy.
- Ge
- Guarani
- Incas
- Quechuas
- Juris
- Latin peoples
- Mapuche
- Mestizo
- Xucuru
- Zaparos Indigenous peoples make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru, and are a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this include Argentina and Uruguay. At least three of the Amerindian languages (Quechua in Peru and Bolivia, Aymara also in Bolivia, and Guarani in Paraguay) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Argentina is 10 percent Indian.

Mestizos

"Mestizo" is a term of Spanish origin used to designate the peoples of mixed European and Amerindian racial strain inhabiting the region spanning the Americas. Mestizos officially make up the majority of the populations of Chile (90%), Colombia (58%), Ecuador (65%), Paraguay (95%) and Venezuela (67%). Figures in other countries are Argentina (about 13%), Bolivia (30%), Brazil (about 12%), Uruguay (8%) and Peru (37%).

African ancestry

Africans first arrived with the Spanish and Portuguese in the 16th century. Most were brought as slaves and delivered to Brazil and the Caribbean. Brazil now has about 60 million black people. Venezuela and Colombia also have significant black population. "Mulato" is a term of Spanish origin (Mulatto in English) describing Latin Americans of mixed African and White racial descent. "Zambo" is a term of Spanish origin describing Latin Americans of mixed African and Amerindian racial descent. The feminine form is zamba.

Territories and divisions

Notes:
¹ La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia; Sucre is the judicial seat.
² Santiago is the administrative capital of Chile; Valparaíso is the site of legislative meetings.
³ Claimed by Argentina.
⁴ The South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands have no permanent population, only hosting a periodic contingent of about 100 researchers and visitors.
- Depending on definitions, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of South and North America.

External links

News
- [http://www.notisur.com/ NOTISUR -- Political and social news of South America (in Spanish)] Sports
- [http://www.conmebol.com/ CONMEBOL -- Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (The South American Footbal Confederation) in Spanish and Portuguese] Geography
- [http://www.freeworldmaps.net/southamerica/index.html Physical map of South America] South American Community of Nations Category:Continents South America zh-min-nan:Lâm Bí-chiu ko:남아메리카 ja:南アメリカ simple:South America th:ทวีปอเมริกาใต้

Forest

:This article is about forests as communities of trees. For other uses of the word, see Forest (disambiguation). Forest (disambiguation) A forest is an area with a high density of trees (or, historically, a wooded area set aside for hunting). These plant communities cover large areas of the globe and function as carbon dioxide sinks, animal habitats, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earth's biosphere. Forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree-line, except where natural fire frequency is too high, or where the tree growing environment has been impaired by natural processes or humans. Forests sometimes contain many tree species in a small area (e.g. tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), but other forest types have relatively few species over large areas (e.g. taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms are species-rich, while those dominated by gymnosperms are not so rich, although exceptions do exist (e.g., species-poor aspen and birch stands in northern latitudes). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation types. Much of this biomass occurs below-ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of forests contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate. Forests are differentiated from woodlands by the extent of canopy coverage: in a forest the branches and foliage of separate trees often meet or interlock, although there can be gaps of varying sizes within an area referred to as forest. A woodland has a more continuously open canopy, with trees spaced further apart, which allows more sunlight to penetrate to the ground between them (see also: savanna). savanna Among the major forested biomes are:
- rain forest (tropical and temperate)
- taiga
- temperate hardwood forest
- tropical dry forest

Classification

tropical dry forest Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the biome in which they exist combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.
- Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous.
- Temperate zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g., temperate deciduous forest) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g., Temperate coniferous forests and Temperate rainforests). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel forests.
- Tropical and subtropical forests include tropical rainforests, tropical and subtropical moist forests, tropical and subtropical dry forests, and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests.
- Physiognomy classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. old growth vs. second growth).
- Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest types (e.g., ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest).

Forest management

The scientific study of forests is referred to as forest ecology, while the management of forests is often referred to as forestry, often with the goal of sustainable resource extraction. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause and effect relationships. Foresters often focus on wood extraction and silviculture, including tree regeneration and growth processes. Forests can be damaged by logging, forest fires, acid rain, herbivores, and diseases, among other things. In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years environmental protection has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts. For more comprehensive information on this sub-topic visit the [http://www.iifm.ac.in Indian Institute of Forest Management] in India.

Leaf

:This article is about the leaf, a plant organ. See Leaf (disambiguation) for other meanings. ---- In botany, a leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for photosynthesis. For this purpose, a leaf is typically flat (laminar) and thin, to expose the chloroplast containing cells (chlorenchyma tissue) to light over a broad area, and to allow light to penetrate fully into the tissues. Leaves are also the sites in most plants where respiration, transpiration, and guttation take place. Leaves can store food and water, and are modified in some plants for other purposes. The comparable structures of ferns are correctly referred to as fronds. frond frond frond

Leaf anatomy

A structurally complete leaf of an angiosperm consists of a petiole (leaf stem), a lamina (leaf blade), and stipules (small processes located to either side of the base of the petiole). The point at which the petiole attaches to the stem is called the leaf axil. Not every species produces leaves with all of these structural parts. In some species, paired stipules are not obvious or are absent altogether; a petiole may be absent; or the blade may not be laminar (flattened). The tremendous variety shown in leaf structure (anatomy) from species to species is presented in detail below under Leaf types, arrangements, and forms. A leaf is considered to be a plant organ, typically consisting of the following tissues: # An epidermis that covers the upper and lower surfaces # An interior chlorenchyma called the mesophyll # An arrangement of veins (the vascular tissue). stipule

Epidermis

The epidermis is the outer multi-layered group of cells covering the leaf. It forms the boundary between the plant and the external world. The epidermis serves several functions: protection against water loss, regulation of gas exchange, secretion of metabolic compounds, and (in some species) absorption of water. Most leaves show dorsoventral anatomy: the upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions. The epidermis is usually transparent (epidermal cells lack chloroplasts) and coated on the outer side with a waxy cuticle that prevents water loss. The cuticle may be thinner on the lower epidermis than on the upper epidermis; and is thicker on leaves from dry climates as compared with those from wet climates. The epidermis tissue includes several differentiated cell types: epidermal cells, guard cells, subsidiary cells, and epidermal hairs (trichomes). The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, and least specialized. These are typically more elongated in the leaves of monocots than in those of dicots. The epidermis is covered with pores called stomata (sing., stoma), part of a stoma complex consisting of a pore surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts. The stoma complex regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the leaf. Typically, the stomata are more numerous over the abaxial (lower) epidermis than the (adaxial) upper epidermis. Trichomes or hairs grow out from the epidermis in many species.

Mesophyll

Most of the interior of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis is a parenchyma (ground tissue) or chlorenchyma tissue called the mesophyll (= middle leaf). This "assimilation tissue" is the primary location of photosynthesis in the plant. The products of photosynthesis are called assimilates. In ferns and most flowering plants the mesophyll is divided into two layers:
- An upper palisade layer of tightly packed, vertically elongated cells, one to two cells thick, directly beneath the adaxial epidermis. Its cells contain many more chloroplasts than the spongy layer. These long cylindrical cells are regularly arranged in one to five rows. Cylindrical cells, with the chloroplasts close to the walls of the cell, can take optimal advantage of light. The slight separation of the cells provides maximum absorption of carbon dioxide. This separation must be minimal to afford capillary action for water distribution. In order to adapt to their different environment (such as sun or shade), plants had to adapt this structure to obtain optimal result. Sun leaves have a multi-layered palisade layer, while shade leaves or older leaves closer to the soil, are single-layered.
- Beneath the palisade layer is the spongy layer. The cells of the spongy layer are more rounded and not so tightly packed. There are large intercellular air spaces. These cells contain less chloroplasts than those of the palisade layer. The pores or stomata of the epidermis open into substomatal chambers, connecting to air spaces between the spongy layer cells. These two different layers of the mesophyll are absent in many aquatic and marsh plants. Even an epidermis and a mesophyll may be lacking. Instead for their gaseous exchanges they use a homogenous aerenchyma (thin-walled cells separated by large gas-filled spaces). Their stomata are situated at the upper surface. Leaves are normally green in color, which comes from chlorophyll found in plastids in the chlorenchyma cells. Plants that lack chlorophyll cannot photosynthesize. Leaves in temperate, boreal, and seasonally dry zones may be seasonally deciduous (falling off or dying for the inclement season). This mechanism to shed leaves is called abscission. After the leaf is shed, a leaf scar develops on the twig. In cold autumns they sometimes turn yellow, bright orange or red as various accessory pigments (carotenoids and anthocyanins) are revealed when the tree responds to cold and reduced sunlight by curtailing chlorophyll production.

Veins

The veins are the vascular tissue of the leaf and are located in the spongy layer of the mesophyll. They are typical examples of pattern formation through ramification. The veins are made up of:
- xylem, which brings water from the stem into the leaf.
- phloem, which usually moves sap out, the latter containing the glucose produced by photosynthesis in the leaf. The xylem typically lies over the phloem. Both are embedded in a dense parenchyma tissue (= ground tissue), called pith, with usually some structural collenchyma tissue present.

Leaf morphology

External leaf characteristics (such as shape, margin, hairs, etc.) are important for identifying plant species, and botanists have developed a rich terminology for describing leaf characteristics. phloem Leaves may be classified in many different ways, and the type is usually characteristic of a species, although some species produce more than one type of leaf. The terminology associated with describing leaf morphology is presented (with illustrations) at [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Botany:_Leaves_(forms) Wikibooks].

Basic leaf types

- Ferns have fronds.
- Conifer leaves are typically needle-, awl-, or scale-shaped
- Angiosperm (flowering plant) leaves: the standard form includes stipules, petiole, and lamina.
- Microphyll leaves.
- Sheath leaves (type found in most grasses).
- Other specialized leaves.

Arrangement on the stem

As a stem grows, leaves tend to appear arranged around the stem in away that optimizes yield of light. In essence, leaves come off the stem in a spiral pattern, either clockwise or counterclockwise, with (depending upon the species) the same angle of divergence. There is a regularity in these angles and they follow the numbers in a Fibonacci series: 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 5/8, 8/13, 13/21, 21/34, 34/55, 55/89. This series tends to a limit of 360° x 34/89 = 137,52 or 137° 30', an angle known mathematically as the 'golden angle'. In the series, the numerator gives the number of complete turns or gyres until the leaf arrives at the initial position. The denominator gives the number of leaves in the arrangement. This can be demonstrated by the following:
- alternate leaves have an angle of 180° (or 1/2)
- 120° (or 1/3) : three leaves in one circle
- 144° (or 2/5) : five leaves in two gyres
- 135° (or 3/8) : eight leaves in three gyres. The fact that an arrangement of anything in nature can be described by a mathematical formula is not in itself mysterious. Mathematics is the science of discovering numerical relationships and applying formulae to these relationships. The formulae themselves can provide clues to the underlying physiological processes that, in this case, determine where the next leaf bud will form in the elongating stem. However, we can more easily describe the arrangement of leaves using the following terms:
- Alternate — leaf attachments singular at nodes, and leaves alternate direction, to a greater or lesser degree, along the stem.
- Opposite — leaf attachments paired at each node; decussate if, as typical, each successive pair is rotated 90° going along the stem; or distichous if not rotated, but two-ranked (in the same plane).
- Whorled — three or more leaves attach at each point or node on the stem. As with opposite leaves, successive whorls may or may not be decussate, rotated by half the angle between the leaves in the whorl (i.e., successive whorls of three rotated 60°, whorls of four rotated 45°, etc). Note: opposite leaves may appear whorled near the tip of the stem.
- Rosulate — leaves form a rosette ( = a cluster of leaves growing in crowded circles from a common center). Fibonacci series

Divisions of the lamina (blade)

Two basic forms of leaves can be described considering the way the blade is divided. A simple leaf has an undivided blade. However, the leaf shape may be one of lobes, but the gaps between lobes do not reach to the main vein. A compound leaf has a fully subdivided blade, each leaflet of the blade separated along a main or secondary vein. Because each leaflet can appear to be a "simple leaf", it is important to recognize where the petiole occurs to identify a compound leaf. Compound leaves are a characteristic of some families of higher plants, such as the Fabaceae.
- Palmately compound leaves have the leaflets radiating from the end of the petiole, like fingers off the palm of a hand. There is no rachis, e.g. Cannabis (hemp) and Aesculus (buckeyes).
- Pinnately compound leaves have the leaflets arranged along the main or mid-vein (called a rachis in this case).
- odd pinnate: with a terminal leaflet, e.g. Fraxinus (ash).
- even pinnate: lacking a terminal leaflet, e.g. Swietenia (mahogany).
- Bipinnately compound leaves are twice divided: the leaflets are arranged along a secondary vein that is one of several branching off the rachis. Each leaflet is called a pinnule. The pinnules on one secondary vein are called pinna; e.g. Albizia (silk tree).
- trifoliate: a pinnate leaf with just three leaflets, e.g. Trifolium (clover), Laburnum (laburnum).
- pinnatifid: pinnately dissected to the midrib, but with the leaflets not entirely separate, e.g. some Sorbus (whitebeams). ;Characteristics of the petiole:
- Petiolated leaves have a petiole.
- In peltate leaves, the petiole attaches to the blade inside from the blade margin.
- Sessile or clasping leaves do not have a petiole. In sessile leaves the blade attaches directly to the stem. In clasping leaves, the blade partially or wholly surrounds the stem, giving the impression that the shoot grows through the leaf such as in Claytonia perfoliata of the purslane family (Portulacaceae). In some Acacia species, such as the Koa Tree (Acacia koa), the petioles are expanded or broadened and function like leaf blades; these are called phyllodes. There may or may not be normal pinnate leaves at the tip of the phyllode. ;Characteristics of the stipule
- A stipule, present on the leaves of many dicotyledons, is an appendage on each side at the base of the petiole, resembling a small leaf. They may be lasting and not be shed (a stipulate leaf, such as in roses and beans); or be shed as the leaf expands, leaving a stipule scar on the twig (an exstipulate leaf).
- The situation, arrangement, and structure of the stipules is called the stipulation.
- free
- adnate : fused to the petiole base
- ochreate : provided with ochrea, or sheath-formed stipules, e.g. rhubarb,
- encircling the petiole base
- interpetiolar : between the petioles of two opposite leaves.
- intrapetiolar : between the petiole and the subtending stem

Venation (arrangement of the veins)

rhubarb There are two subtypes of venation, craspedodromus (the major veins stretch up to the margin of the leaf) and camptodromous (major veins come close to the margin, but bend before they get to it).
- Feather-veined, reticulate — the veins arise pinnately from a single mid-vein and subdivide into veinlets. These, in turn, form a complicated network. This type of venation is typical for dicotyledons.
- Pinnate-netted, penniribbed, penninerved, penniveined; the leaf has usually one main vein (called the mid-vein), with veinlets, smaller veins branching off laterally, usually somewhat parallel to each other; eg Malus (apples).
- Three main veins originate from the base of the lamina, as in Ceanothus.
- Palmate-netted, palmate-veined, fan-veined; several main veins diverge from near the leaf base where the petiole attaches, and radiate toward the edge of the leaf; e.g. most Acer (maples).
- Parallel-veined, parallel-ribbed, parallel-nerved, penniparallel — veins run parallel most the length of the leaf, from the base to the apex. Commissural veins (small veins) connect the major parallel veins. Typical for most monocotyledons, such as grasses.
- Dichotomous — There are no dominant bundles, with the veins forking regularly by pairs; found in Ginkgo and some pteridophytes.
pteridophyte

Leaf terminology

;Shape See Leaf shape

Margins (edge)

The leaf margin is characteristic for a genus and aids in determining the species.
- entire: even; with a smooth margin; without toothing
- ciliate: fringed with hairs
- crenate: wavy-toothed; dentate with rounded teeth, such as Fagus (beech)
- dentate: toothed, such as Castanea (chestnut)
- coarse-toothed: with large teeth
- glandular toothed: with teeth that bear glands.
- denticulate: finely toothed
- doubly toothed: each tooth bearing smaller teeth, such as Ulmus (elm)
- lobate: indented, with the indentations not reaching to the center, such as many Quercus (oaks)
- palmately lobed: indented with the indentations reaching to the center, such as Humulus (hop).
- serrate: saw-toothed with asymmetrical teeth pointing forward, such as Urtica (nettle)
- serrulate: finely serrate
- sinuate: with deep, wave-like indentations; coarsely crenate, such as many Rumex (docks)
- spiny: with stiff, sharp points, such as some Ilex (hollies) and Cirsium (thistles).

Tip of the leaf

- acuminate: long-pointed, prolonged into a narrow, tapering point in a concave manner.
- acute: ending in a sharp, but not prolonged point
- cuspidate: with a sharp, elongated, rigid tip; tipped with a cusp.
- emarginate: indented, with a shallow notch at the tip.
- mucronate: abruptly tipped with a small short point, as a continuation of the midrib; tipped with a mucro.
- mucronulate: mucronate, but with a smaller spine.
- obcordate: inversely heart-shaped, deeply notched at the top.
- obtuse: rounded or blunt
- truncate: ending abruptly with a flat end, that looks cut off.

Base of the leaf

- acuminate: coming to a sharp, narrow, prolonged point.
- acute: coming to a sharp, but not prolonged point.
- auriculate: ear-shaped
- cordate: heart-shaped with the norch away from the stem.
- cuneate: wedge-shaped.
- hastate: shaped like an halberd and with the basal lobes pointing outward.
- oblique: slanting.
- reniform: kidney-shaped but rounder and broader than long.
- rounded: curving shape.
- sagittate: shaped like an arrowhead and with the acute basal lobes pointing downward.
- truncate: ending abruptly with a flat end, that looks cut off.

Surface of the leaf

The surface of a leaf can be described by several botanical terms:
- farinose: bearing farina; mealy, covered with a waxy, whitish powder.
- glabrous: smooth, not hairy.
- glaucous: with a whitish bloom; covered with a very fine, bluish-white powder.
- glutinous: sticky, viscid.
- papillate, papillose: bearing papillae (minute, nipple-shaped protuberances).
- pubescent: covered with erect hairs (especially soft and short ones)
- punctate: marked with dots; dotted with depressions or with translucent glands or colored dots.
- rugose: deeply wrinkled; with veins clearly visible.
- scurfy: covered with tiny, broad scalelike particles.
- tuberculate: covered with tubercles; covered with warty prominences.
- verrucose: warted, with warty outgrowths.
- viscid, viscous: covered with thick, sticky secretions.

Hairiness (trichomes)

Leaves can show several degrees of hairiness. The meaning of several of the following terms can overlap. See also : Trichome.
- glabrous: no hairs of any kind present.
- arachnoid, arachnose: with many fine, entangled hairs giving a cobwebby appearance.
- barbellate: with finely barbed hairs (barbellae).
- bearded: with long, stiff hairs.
- bristly: with stiff hair-like prickles.
- canescent: hoary with dense grayish-white pubescence.
- ciliate: marginally fringed with short hairs (cilia).
- ciliolate: minutely ciliate.
- floccose: with flocks of soft, woolly hairs, which tend to rub off.
- glandular: with a gland at the tip of the hair.
- hirsute: with rather rough or stiff hairs.
- hispid: with rigid, bristly hairs.
- hispidulous: minutely hispid.
- hoary: with a fine, close grayish-white pubescence.
- lanate, lanose: with woolly hairs.
- pilose: with soft, clearly separated hairs.
- puberulent, puberulous: with fine, minute hairs.
- pubescent: with soft, short and erect hairs.
- scabrous, scabrid: rough to the touch
- sericeous: silky appearance through fine, straight and appressed (lying close and flat) hairs.
- silky: with adpressed, soft and straight pubescence.
- stellate, stelliform: with star-shaped hairs.
- strigose: with appressed, sharp, straight and stiff hairs.
- tomentose: densely pubescent with matted, soft white woolly hairs.
- cano-tomentose: between canescent and tomentose
- felted-tomentose: woolly and matted with curly hairs.
- villous: with long and soft hairs, usually curved.
- woolly: with long, soft and tortuous or matted hairs.

Adaptations

In order to survive in a harsh environment, leaves can adapt in the following ways:
- Hairs develop on the leaf surface to trap humidity in dry climates, creating a large boundary layer to lessen water loss
- Leaves rustle to move humidity away from the surface reducing the boundary layer resistance between the leaf and the air.
- Plant prickles are modified clusters of epidermal hairs
- Waxy leaf surfaces form to prevent water loss
- Small, shiny leaves to deflect the sun's rays
- Thicker leaves to store water (e.g. rhubarb)
- Change to spines instead of laminar (blade) leaves (e.g. cactus)
- Shrink (to phyllodes) or disappear (with the appearance of cladodes), as photosynthetic functions are transferred to the leaf stem (Acacia species)
- Change shape to deflect wind or reduce wind resistance
- Leaves to trap insects (e.g. pitcher plant)
- Change to bulb parts to store food (e.g. onion)
- Produce aromatic oils to deter herbivores (e.g. eucalypts)
- Protect as spines, which are modified leaves.

External links

- [http://www.ibiblio.org/botnet/glossary/b_i.html Position and Arrangement] Category:Photosynthesis Category:Plant physiology Category:plant morphology Category:Plant anatomy ko:잎 ja:葉 th:ใบไม้

Ornamental plant

An ornamental plant is a plant species or cultivar that is grown indoors, or in gardens and parks for its amenity value, or for beauty (in its end use), rather than commercial or other value. For example a homeowner may grow landscape plants to beautify his home area, or a flower garden for cut flowers or for simple enjoyment. Ornamental plants include houseplants and plants used in outdoor gardening or

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